Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice

A centuries-old controversy asks whether judicial elections are inconsistent with impartial justice. The debate is especially important because more than 90 percent of the United States\u27 judicial business is handled by state courts, and approximately nine in ten of all state court judges face the voters in some type of election. Using a stunning new data set of virtually all state supreme court decisions from 1995 to 1998, this paper provides empirical evidence that elected state supreme court judges routinely adjust their rulings to attract votes and campaign money. I find that judges who must be reelected by Republican voters, especially in partisan elections, tend to decide cases in accord with standard Republican policy: they are more likely to vote for businesses over individuals, for employers in labor disputes, for doctors and hospitals in medical malpractice cases, for businesses in products liability cases and tort cases generally, and against criminals in criminal appeals. Judicial behavior is correspondingly liberal for judges facing reelection by Democrats. Moreover, I find evidence that judges change their rulings when the political preferences of the voters change. In addition, my analysis finds a strong relationship between campaign contributions and judges\u27 rulings. Contributions from pro-business groups, pro-labor groups, doctor groups, insurance companies, and lawyer groups increase the probability that judges will vote for the litigants favored by those interest groups. The results suggest that recent trends in judicial elections-elections becoming more contested, competitive, and expensive-may have upset the delicate balance between judicial independence and accountability. I discuss various policy solutions for reforming states\u27 systems

Are Appointed Judges Strategic Too?

The conventional wisdom among many legal scholars is that judicial independence can best be achieved with an appointive judiciary; judicial elections turn judges into politicians, threatening judicial autonomy. Yet the original supporters of judicial elections successfully eliminated the appointive systems of many states by arguing that judges who owed their jobs to politicians could never be truly independent. Because the judiciary could function as a check and balance on the other governmental branches only if it truly were independent of them, the reformers reasoned that only popular elections could ensure a truly independent judiciary. Using a data set of virtually all state supreme court decisions from 1995-1998, this Article provides empirical support for the reformers\u27 arguments; in many cases, judges seeking reappointment vote even more strategically than judges seeking reelection. My results suggest that, compared to other retention methods, judges facing gubernatorial or legislative reappointment are more likely to vote for litigants from the other government branches. Moreover, judges increasingly favor government litigants as their reappointments approach, which is consistent with the judges voting strategically to avoid reappointment denials from the other branches of government. In contrast, when these judges are in their last term before mandatory retirement, the effects disappear; without retention concerns, these judges are no more likely to vote for government litigants than other judges. My empirical evidence suggests that elective systems are not the only systems that produce bias; appointive systems also threaten judicial independence

The environmental implications of manure use in organic farming systems (OF0161)

This is the final report of Defra project OF0161. A desk study was undertaken (a) to identify the important N flows in three types of organic farming systems (extensive upland, intensive lowland mixed and stockless vegetable systems) in relation to manure use and (b) to determine the effects of changed management practice on these flows. A study of the published literature has highlighted the key stages for nutrient management prior to land spreading. Dietary inputs - amounts of N excreted and the partitioning between urine and faeces is important in determining the fate of N through the farming system. Diet affects this partition, but we were unable to find evidence of differences between organic and non-organic rations. Clearly, a crude N balance (N in feed - N in milk) provides a good guide to risk. Because N removal in milk is a small component, the more intensive systems are likely to generate more N as excreta. Housing - it is estimated that, in the UK, NH3 losses from housing constitute c. 35% of the total NH3 emissions from cattle production systems (compared with 14% from manure storage) and about 20% of total N2O emissions. The limited available information suggests that losses by NH3 emission during housing are larger from slurry based systems than from cattle housed on straw. The converse is true of N2O losses. Solid manure storage - composting offers advantages (namely sterilisation) but also can exacerbate loss of nitrogen as NH3. Losses of up to almost 80% of the total N have been reported. Our analysis of the numerous experiments suggests that the C:N ratio should be >30 at the start of composting to retain N (i.e. to reduce losses to <10%). Loose covering had little effect on retaining nitrogen. NPK are lost in leachate during manure storage (but only represent a true loss if the leachate is not collected for recycling). Slurry storage - losses are predominantly as NH3 and typically 0.05% (winter) - 0.1% (summer) of the total N content per day. A crust would approximately halve losses. Stirring increases volatilisation. Aeration would have similar effects, but may also increase N2O emissions if it produces intermittent aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Covering stores would substantially decrease losses and options range from straw to concrete structures. Effectiveness increases with cost! A simple N model was constructed to calculate the integrated effects of management practices during housing and storage. Our calculations suggested that an all-slurry system (though not permitted under organic regulations) would retain more N than a straw-based system: losses from slurry are greater during housing, less during storage (assuming the slurry lagoon is covered or has a crust and is not regularly stirred), and greater in the field (as ammonia and nitrate in particular): N losses from FYM after spreading are less, especially if composted. The question that inevitably will be asked is ‘do conventionally managed systems provide more of a risk than organic systems?’ There is no straightforward answer. Many of the loss processes from manure will be the same between systems but they will be modified by management and by the intensity of the enterprise. It is this latter point - i.e. the nutrient balance - that will have most impact on any comparison; farms with a large nutrient excess will be more prone to large losses. Thus, generally, organic farms provide less emissions than conventional farming systems involving livestock. The move to more solid-based systems should result in smaller losses of N during housing, but practical measures to reduce losses during storage need to be investigated. The outcome of all management processes is the production of manures that vary widely in composition between farms and often within farms. Our analyses of 14 cattle slurries and 45 cattle manures confirm the wide variations in nutrient contents as affected by many management factors. Generally, NPK values were c. 20-40% less than published values for ‘conventionally’ produced manures (although these mean values were also associated with a wide range of values). This probably reflects the lower intensity of organic production systems

Understanding soil fertility in organically farmed systems (OF0164)

This is the final report of the Defra project OF0164. Organic farming aims to create an economically and environmentally sustainable agriculture, with the emphasis placed on self-sustaining biological systems rather than external inputs. Building soil fertility is central to this ethos. ‘Soil fertility’ can be considered as a measure of the soil’s ability to sustain satisfactory crop growth, both in the short- and longer-term. It is determined by a set of interactions between the soil’s physical environment, chemical environment and biological activity. The aim of this project was, therefore, to provide a better scientific understanding of soil fertility under organic farming. The approach was to undertake a comprehensive literature review at the start of the project to assess and synthesise available information. Studies were then designed to address specific questions identified from the literature review. The literature review was written during the first year of the project. In addition to submitting written copies to DEFRA, the chapters were posted on a project website: www.adas.co.uk/soilfertility. The Review was based around key questions: • What are the soil organic matter characteristics and the roles of different fractions of the soil organic matter? • Do organically managed soils have higher levels of organic matter (SOM), with a resultant improvement in soil properties? • Is the soil biology different in organically managed soils, in terms of size, biodiversity and activity? • Do organically managed soils have a greater inherent capacity to supply plant nutrients? • What are the nutrient pools and their sizes? • What are the processes and rates of nutrient transfer in relation to nutrient demand? • What are the environmental consequences of organic management? The project also included a large amount of practical work. This necessarily covered a wide range of topics, which were examined in a series of separate studies: • Soil microbiology: a series of measurements focusing on two sites, undertaken by University of Wales Bangor (UWB) • Field campaigns in autumn 1999 and spring/summer 2000: separate field sampling campaigns focusing especially on nutrient pools, undertaken by HDRA, ADAS and IGER • Incubation studies: a series of three separate experiments to look in more detail at N dynamics, managed by ADAS, with support from IGER and HDRA From the literature review and the practical work, the following was concluded: Organic matter is linked intrinsically to soil fertility, because it is important in maintaining good soil physical conditions (e.g. soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity), which contribute to soil fertility. Organic matter also contains most of the soil reserve of N and large proportions of other nutrients such as P and sulphur. Field management data gathered from farmers showed, however, that organic matter returns are not necessarily larger in organic systems. Many non-organically farmed soils receive regular manure applications and the generally higher yielding crops on conventional farms may return larger crop residues. Conversely, many organic fields receive little or no manure, relying on the fertility building ley phase for organic matter input. This observation is important. Management practices within organic and non-organic systems are diverse, and all have consequences for soil fertility. The Executive Summary at the start of the main attached report has additional sections on Soil Structure, Soil Biology, and Nutrient Cycling with some greater detail on comparisons of organic and conventional management and the consequences for soil fertility

Bi-Directional Relativistic Jets of the Radio Galaxy 1946+708: Constraints on the Hubble Constant

We present measurements of bi-directional motions in the jets of the radio galaxy 1946+708 at z=0.101. This is a Compact Symmetric Object with striking S-symmetry. Sensitive 15 GHz observations reveal a compact component at the center of symmetry with a strongly inverted spectrum, that we identify as the core. From five 4.9 GHz observations spread over 4 years we have determined the velocities of four compact jet components. If simple kinematic models can be applied then the inclination of the source and the bulk jet velocity can be directly determined for any assumed value of the Hubble constant. Conversely, the measurements already place constraints on the Hubble constant, and we show how further observations of 1946+708 can yield an increasingly accurate determination of H_0.Comment: in press at ApJ Letters, 12 page LaTex document includes 5 postscript figure

Effect of Porous Thrust Surfaces on Detonation Transition and Detonation Tube Impulse

As pulse detonation engine development matures, it becomes increasingly important to consider how practical details such as the implementation of valves and nozzles will affect performance. Inlet valve timing and valveless inlet designs may result in flow of products back upstream and, consequently, reduction in impulse over the ideal case. Although proper inlet design or operation under flowing conditions may minimize these losses, our study addresses the worst-case effect that a porous thrust surface may have on the measured impulse. A series of single-cycle tests have been carried out to measure the impulse in stoichiometric ethylene–oxygen mixtures, initially between 20 and 100 kPa, in a detonation tube with a porous thrust surface. The tested thrust surfaces had blockage ratios ranging from completely solid (100% blockage ratio) to completely open (0% blockage ratio). A 76% loss in impulse was observed with a thrust surface blockage ratio of 52% at an initial pressure of 100 kPa. The time to detonation transition was found to be more dependent on the mixture’s initial pressure than on the thrust surface blockage ratio. A model of the impulse in detonation tubes with porous thrust surfaces was developed

Single-Cycle Impulse from Detonation Tubes with Nozzles

Experiments measuring the single-cycle impulse from detonation tubes with nozzles were conducted by hanging the tubes in a ballistic pendulum arrangement within a large tank. The detonation-tube nozzle and surrounding tank were initially filled with air between 1.4 and 100 kPa in pressure simulating high-altitude conditions. A stoichiometric ethylene–oxygen mixture at an initial pressure of 80 kPa filled the constant-diameter portion of the tube. Four diverging nozzles and six converging–diverging nozzles were tested. Two regimes of nozzle operation were identified, depending on the environmental pressure. Near sea-level conditions, unsteady gas-dynamic effects associated with the mass of air contained in the nozzle increase the impulse as much as 72% for the largest nozzle tested over the baseline case of a plain tube. Near vacuum conditions, the nozzles quasi-steadily expand the flow, increasing the impulse as much as 43% for the largest nozzle tested over the baseline case of a plain tube. Competition between the unsteady and quasi-steady-flow processes in the nozzle determine the measured impulse as the environmental pressure varies

Thermal and Catalytic Cracking of JP-10 for Pulse Detonation Engine Applications

Practical air-breathing pulse detonation engines (PDE) will be based on storable liquid hydrocarbon fuels such as JP-10 or Jet A. However, such fuels are not optimal for PDE operation due to the high energy input required for direct initiation of a detonation and the long deflagration-to-detonation transition times associated with low-energy initiators. These effects increase cycle time and reduce time-averaged thrust, resulting in a significant loss of performance. In an effort to utilize such conventional liquid fuels and still maintain the performance of the lighter and more sensitive hydrocarbon fuels, various fuel modification schemes such as thermal and catalytic cracking have been investigated. We have examined the decomposition of JP-10 through thermal and catalytic cracking mechanisms at elevated temperatures using a bench-top reactor system. The system has the capability to vaporize liquid fuel at precise flowrates while maintaining the flow path at elevated temperatures and pressures for extended periods of time. The catalytic cracking tests were completed utilizing common industrial zeolite catalysts installed in the reactor. A gas chromatograph with a capillary column and flame ionization detector, connected to the reactor output, is used to speciate the reaction products. The conversion rate and product compositions were determined as functions of the fuel metering rate, reactor temperature, system backpressure, and zeolite type. An additional study was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of using pre-mixed rich combustion to partially oxidize JP-10. A mixture of partially oxidized products was initially obtained by rich combustion in JP-10 and air mixtures for equivalence ratios between 1 and 5. Following the first burn, air was added to the products, creating an equivalent stoichiometric mixture. A second burn was then carried out. Pressure histories and schlieren video images were recorded for both burns. The results were analyzed by comparing the peak and final pressures to idealized thermodynamic predictions

Detonation Tube Impulse in Subatmospheric Environments

Thrust from a multicycle pulse detonation engine operating at practical flight altitudes will vary with surrounding environment pressure.We have carried out the first experimental study using a detonation tube hung in a ballistic pendulum arrangement within a large pressure vessel to determine the effect that the environment has on the single-cycle impulse. Air pressure decreased below 100 kPa, whereas initial pressure of the stoichiometric ethylene–oxygen mixture inside the tube varied between 100 and 30 kPa. The original impulse model (Wintenberger et al., Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2002, pp. 22–38) was modified to predict the observed increase in impulse and blowdown time as the environmental pressure decreased below 1 atm. Comparisons between the impulse from detonation tubes and ideal steady-flow rockets indicate incomplete expansion of the detonation tube exhaust, resulting in a 37% difference in impulse at a pressure ratio (ratio of pressure behind the Taylor wave to environmental pressure) of 100

Creating New Ventures: A review and research agenda

Creating new ventures is one of the most central topics to entrepreneurship and is a critical step from which many theories of management, organizational behavior, and strategic management build. Therefore, this review and proposed research agenda is not only relevant to entrepreneurship scholars but also other management scholars who wish to challenge some of the implicit assumptions of their current streams of research and extend the boundaries of their current theories to earlier in the organization’s life. Given that the last systematic review of the topic was published 16 years ago, and that the topic has evolved rapidly over this time, an overview and research outlook are long overdue. From our review, we inductively generated ten sub-topics: (1) Lead founder, (2) Founding team, (3) Social relationships, (4) Cognitions, (5) Emergent organizing, (6) New venture strategy, (7) Organizational emergence, (8) New venture legitimacy, (9) Founder exit, and (10) Entrepreneurial environment. These sub-topics are then organized into three major stages of the entrepreneurial process—co-creating, organizing, and performing. Together, the framework provides a cohesive story of the past and a road map for future research on creating new ventures, focusing on the links connecting these sub-topics